{
  "@context": "https://schema.org",
  "@type": "Dataset",
  "@id": "https://www.z-beam.com/datasets/contaminants/atmospheric-soiling-stone-laser-cleaning#dataset",
  "identifier": "atmospheric-soiling-stone-laser-cleaning",
  "name": "atmospheric-soiling-stone",
  "description": "atmospheric-soiling-stone",
  "url": "https://www.z-beam.com/datasets/contaminants/atmospheric-soiling-stone-laser-cleaning",
  "includedInDataCatalog": {
    "@type": "DataCatalog",
    "name": "Z-Beam Laser Cleaning Entity Registry",
    "url": "https://www.z-beam.com/datasets"
  },
  "variableMeasured": [
    {
      "@type": "PropertyValue",
      "name": "blackCrustFormation",
      "value": "Sulphation between the carbonate and sulfur compounds induces the transformation of calcite (CaCO₃) into gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O); polyporous gypsum adsorbs elemental carbon, resulting in a black color",
      "propertyID": "contaminant:atmospheric-soiling-stone/facts.blackCrustFormation",
      "citation": [
        {
          "@id": "#wang-beijing-marble-black-crust-2022"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "@type": "PropertyValue",
      "name": "blackCrustThickness",
      "value": "thickness of black crusts ranges from 100 to 273 μm on sampled marble",
      "propertyID": "contaminant:atmospheric-soiling-stone/facts.blackCrustThickness",
      "unitText": "μm",
      "citation": [
        {
          "@id": "#wang-beijing-marble-black-crust-2022"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "@type": "PropertyValue",
      "name": "gypsumDecomposition",
      "value": "gypsum dehydrates at ~128°C; CaSO₄ melts at 1460°C",
      "propertyID": "contaminant:atmospheric-soiling-stone/facts.gypsumDecomposition",
      "citation": [
        {
          "@id": "#cooper-laser-cleaning-intro-1998"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "@type": "PropertyValue",
      "name": "ablationThresholdMarbleBlackCrust",
      "value": "in a fluence range of between 0.75 and 1.26 J/cm² there is a 100% probability of removing material from a black crust without damaging the clean stone",
      "propertyID": "contaminant:atmospheric-soiling-stone/facts.ablationThresholdMarbleBlackCrust",
      "unitText": "J/cm² (1064 nm, ns-pulsed, black crust on marble)",
      "citation": [
        {
          "@id": "#pouli-two-wavelength-laser-2016"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "@type": "PropertyValue",
      "name": "marbleDamageThreshold1064nm",
      "value": "Typical F threshold values determined for 1064 nm ablation of black pollution crust and Pentelic marble are 0.8 and 3.5 J/cm², respectively",
      "propertyID": "contaminant:atmospheric-soiling-stone/facts.marbleDamageThreshold1064nm",
      "unitText": "J/cm² (1064 nm, ns-pulsed, Pentelic marble)",
      "citation": [
        {
          "@id": "#pouli-two-wavelength-laser-2016"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "@type": "PropertyValue",
      "name": "sandstoneAblationThresholds",
      "value": "The fluence threshold for the removal of the superficial black crust was 0.85 ± 0.04 J/cm², while no damage was done to the sandstone until reaching a fluence of 1.25 ± 0.06 J/cm²",
      "propertyID": "contaminant:atmospheric-soiling-stone/facts.sandstoneAblationThresholds",
      "citation": [
        {
          "@id": "#cooper-laser-cleaning-stone-review-2003"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "@type": "PropertyValue",
      "name": "graniteDamageThreshold",
      "value": "laser irradiation at fluence values up to 1.1 J·cm⁻² did not cause visible damage in the granite; above 1.2 J·cm⁻² presented several signs of damage",
      "propertyID": "contaminant:atmospheric-soiling-stone/facts.graniteDamageThreshold",
      "unitText": "J/cm² (1064 nm, ns, granite ablation/damage threshold)",
      "citation": [
        {
          "@id": "#pozo-antonio-granite-graffiti-2018"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "@type": "PropertyValue",
      "name": "laserDamageThreshold",
      "value": "1.1–3.5",
      "propertyID": "contaminant:atmospheric-soiling-stone/facts.laserDamageThreshold",
      "unitText": "J/cm²",
      "wavelengthNm": 1064,
      "pulseRegime": "ns",
      "citation": [
        {
          "@id": "#cooper-laser-cleaning-stone-review-2003"
        },
        {
          "@id": "#pouli-two-wavelength-laser-2016"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "@type": "PropertyValue",
      "name": "marbleYellowing1064nm",
      "value": "the yellowing effect observed when using the 1064 nm pulses is definitely avoided using 355 nm; the yellow color is mostly linked to the presence of octahedral Fe³⁺ ions",
      "propertyID": "contaminant:atmospheric-soiling-stone/facts.marbleYellowing1064nm",
      "citation": [
        {
          "@id": "#siano-laser-cleaning-review-2012"
        },
        {
          "@id": "#verges-belmin-laser-yellowing-2003"
        },
        {
          "@id": "#marakis-third-harmonic-yellowing-2003"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "@type": "PropertyValue",
      "name": "ndYAGvsErYAG",
      "value": "Er:YAG laser emits radiation at 2940 nm which is highly absorbed by materials containing hydroxyl (OH) groups; Nd:YAG at 1064 nm is widely recognized as an effective restoration technique for encrusted stones",
      "propertyID": "contaminant:atmospheric-soiling-stone/facts.ndYAGvsErYAG",
      "citation": [
        {
          "@id": "#sutter-er-yag-nd-yag-pisa-2023"
        },
        {
          "@id": "#mdpi-er-yag-cemented-dust-2020"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "@type": "PropertyValue",
      "name": "removalMechanismThermalSpallation",
      "value": "the fluence threshold for the black crust and the stone were separated by a gap of approximately 0.4 J/cm²; a removal mechanism other than ablation can cause a loss of stone particles",
      "propertyID": "contaminant:atmospheric-soiling-stone/facts.removalMechanismThermalSpallation",
      "citation": [
        {
          "@id": "#cooper-laser-cleaning-stone-review-2003"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "@type": "PropertyValue",
      "name": "biologicalGrowthRemoval",
      "value": "A fluence of 0.03 J/cm² was identified as optimal, providing complete removal of the Nocardia-induced black biofilm while remaining below the limestone ablation threshold",
      "propertyID": "contaminant:atmospheric-soiling-stone/facts.biologicalGrowthRemoval",
      "citation": [
        {
          "@id": "#pmc-nocardia-biofilm-laser-2025"
        },
        {
          "@id": "#springer-fs-granite-biofilm-2025"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "@type": "PropertyValue",
      "name": "efflorescenceChemistry",
      "value": "Na₂SO₄ is one of the most destructive [salts] due to its significant volume changes during solution-crystal transitions",
      "propertyID": "contaminant:atmospheric-soiling-stone/facts.efflorescenceChemistry",
      "citation": [
        {
          "@id": "#zhang-yongling-salts-2025"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "@type": "PropertyValue",
      "name": "wavelengthSelectionStone",
      "value": "the simultaneous use of 1064 nm and 355 nm was found appropriate to clean pollution crusts while ensuring that no discoloration would occur",
      "propertyID": "contaminant:atmospheric-soiling-stone/facts.wavelengthSelectionStone",
      "citation": [
        {
          "@id": "#pouli-two-wavelength-laser-2016"
        },
        {
          "@id": "#met-museum-cloisters-laser-2014"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "@type": "PropertyValue",
      "name": "wettingAssistedCleaning",
      "value": "Wetting the surface prior to laser cleaning can also improve the results and is sometimes referred to as 'steam laser cleaning'",
      "propertyID": "contaminant:atmospheric-soiling-stone/facts.wettingAssistedCleaning",
      "citation": [
        {
          "@id": "#cooper-laser-cleaning-intro-1998"
        },
        {
          "@id": "#science4heritage-cost-g7"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "@type": "PropertyValue",
      "name": "substrateDamageThresholdsRanked",
      "value": "Marble absorbs less than 10% at 1064 nm; granite damage onset at 1.1-1.2 J/cm²; sandstone is the most critical — tightest process window",
      "propertyID": "contaminant:atmospheric-soiling-stone/facts.substrateDamageThresholdsRanked",
      "citation": [
        {
          "@id": "#cooper-laser-cleaning-stone-review-2003"
        },
        {
          "@id": "#pouli-two-wavelength-laser-2016"
        },
        {
          "@id": "#pozo-antonio-granite-graffiti-2018"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "@type": "PropertyValue",
      "name": "architecturalGradeMinimalIntervention",
      "value": "the level of clean determined by the CBRP team is the result of extensive research, analysis, testing (mock-ups) and deliberation among the project's heritage and masonry experts",
      "propertyID": "contaminant:atmospheric-soiling-stone/facts.architecturalGradeMinimalIntervention",
      "citation": [
        {
          "@id": "#edgar-centre-block-laser-2019"
        },
        {
          "@id": "#met-museum-cloisters-laser-2014"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "@type": "PropertyValue",
      "name": "postCleaningHydrophobicityRisk",
      "value": "long-term risks include potential alterations to surface hydrophobicity and stone permeability that may affect moisture dynamics",
      "propertyID": "contaminant:atmospheric-soiling-stone/facts.postCleaningHydrophobicityRisk",
      "citation": [
        {
          "@id": "#pmc-nocardia-biofilm-laser-2025"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "@type": "PropertyValue",
      "name": "archaeologicalMetalPatina",
      "value": "laser cleaning, in optimized conditions, can reduce the thickness of the hydroxychloride layers slightly affecting the oxide layers",
      "propertyID": "contaminant:atmospheric-soiling-stone/facts.archaeologicalMetalPatina",
      "citation": [
        {
          "@id": "#buccolieri-laser-cleaning-cu-artefacts-2018"
        },
        {
          "@id": "#di-francia-bronze-laser-cleaning-2022"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "@type": "PropertyValue",
      "name": "cleaningRateStonePerSqFt",
      "value": "the speed of cleaning is comparable to that which can be achieved with a pencil-sized air-abrasive gun",
      "propertyID": "contaminant:atmospheric-soiling-stone/facts.cleaningRateStonePerSqFt",
      "unitText": "ft²/hr (heritage stone conservation)",
      "citation": [
        {
          "@id": "#getty-stone-conservation-1996"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "@type": "PropertyValue",
      "name": "laserVsLegacyStoneCleaning",
      "value": "even gentle micro-sandblasting caused surface roughness increases of 15-30%; laser cleaning on marble surfaces produced no detectable microcracking at fluences below 1.5 J/cm²",
      "propertyID": "contaminant:atmospheric-soiling-stone/facts.laserVsLegacyStoneCleaning",
      "citation": [
        {
          "@id": "#cooper-laser-cleaning-stone-review-2003"
        },
        {
          "@id": "#pouli-two-wavelength-laser-2016"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "@type": "PropertyValue",
      "name": "absorptionProfile",
      "value": "1064 nm (fundamental IR): primary wavelength for dark pollution crusts, soot, and biological growth — maximum absorption contrast between contaminant and light stone substrate. 532 nm (green, second harmonic): useful for pigmented substrates, some graffiti removal, and biological growth on darker st",
      "propertyID": "contaminant:atmospheric-soiling-stone/facts.absorptionProfile",
      "citation": [
        {
          "@id": "#pouli-two-wavelength-laser-2016"
        },
        {
          "@id": "#met-museum-cloisters-laser-2014"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "@type": "PropertyValue",
      "name": "formationChemistry",
      "value": "Sulphation between the carbonate and sulfur compounds induces the transformation of calcite (CaCO₃) into gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O); polyporous gypsum adsorbs elemental carbon, resulting in a black color",
      "propertyID": "contaminant:atmospheric-soiling-stone/facts.formationChemistry",
      "citation": [
        {
          "@id": "#wang-beijing-marble-black-crust-2022"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "@type": "PropertyValue",
      "name": "thermalDecomposition",
      "value": "gypsum dehydrates at ~128°C; CaSO₄ melts at 1460°C",
      "propertyID": "contaminant:atmospheric-soiling-stone/facts.thermalDecomposition",
      "citation": [
        {
          "@id": "#cooper-laser-cleaning-intro-1998"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "@type": "PropertyValue",
      "name": "detectionMethods",
      "value": "Visual inspection guides initial cleaning; FTIR and XRF distinguish gypsum crust from original stone; cross-section microscopy reveals residual crust in pores; colorimetry quantifies yellowing.",
      "propertyID": "contaminant:atmospheric-soiling-stone/facts.detectionMethods",
      "citation": [
        {
          "@id": "#cooper-laser-cleaning-intro-1998"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "@type": "PropertyValue",
      "name": "byproducts",
      "value": "{\"airborne\":\"Gypsum (CaSO₄) particulate dust and carbonaceous soot particles\",\"filtration\":\"HEPA particulate extraction; no VOC or acid gas stage needed\",\"wasteClassification\":\"Generally non-hazardous — gypsum and carbon particulate; lead-rich crusts (industrial-era stone) require assessment\"}",
      "propertyID": "contaminant:atmospheric-soiling-stone/facts.byproducts",
      "citation": [
        {
          "@id": "#cooper-laser-cleaning-stone-review-2003"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "@type": "PropertyValue",
      "name": "downstreamCompatibility",
      "value": "{\"recontamination\":\"Porous stone re-absorbs SO₂ from atmosphere; crust re-forms over years in high-pollution environments. Not spontaneous — environmental rate\",\"surfaceReadiness\":\"Laser-cleaned stone surface is chemically stable; water-repellent consolidation treatments (silanes) can be applied after cleaning. Critically: wetting-assisted cleaning protocols are standard at accredited conservation labs\"}",
      "propertyID": "contaminant:atmospheric-soiling-stone/facts.downstreamCompatibility",
      "citation": [
        {
          "@id": "#cooper-laser-cleaning-stone-review-2003"
        }
      ]
    }
  ],
  "measurementTechnique": "Laser cleaning parameter measurement",
  "license": {
    "@type": "CreativeWork",
    "name": "CC BY 4.0",
    "url": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"
  },
  "creator": {
    "@type": "Organization",
    "name": "Z-Beam Laser Cleaning"
  },
  "publisher": {
    "@type": "Organization",
    "name": "Z-Beam Laser Cleaning",
    "url": "https://www.z-beam.com"
  },
  "dateModified": "2026-08-31",
  "version": "3.0",
  "citation": [
    {
      "@type": "ScholarlyArticle",
      "@id": "#buccolieri-laser-cleaning-cu-artefacts-2018",
      "headline": "Buccolieri, G. et al. 'Laser cleaning of Cu-based artefacts.' ACTA IMEKO, vol. 7, no. 3, 2018, pp. 107-113.",
      "sameAs": "https://acta.imeko.org/index.php/acta-imeko/article/view/IMEKO-ACTA-07%20%282018%29-03-16/pdf"
    },
    {
      "@type": "ScholarlyArticle",
      "@id": "#cooper-laser-cleaning-intro-1998",
      "headline": "Cooper, M. (ed.) Laser Cleaning in Conservation: An Introduction. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1998.",
      "sameAs": "https://www.buildingconservation.com/articles/laser/laser.htm"
    },
    {
      "@type": "ScholarlyArticle",
      "@id": "#cooper-laser-cleaning-stone-review-2003",
      "headline": "Cooper, M. 'Laser cleaning of stone materials: an overview of current research.' Reviews in Conservation, no. 4, 2003, pp. 1-26.",
      "sameAs": "https://www.lrmh.fr/digitalCollection/DigitalCollectionAttachmentDownloadHandler.ashx?parentDocumentId=109062&documentId=217896"
    },
    {
      "@type": "ScholarlyArticle",
      "@id": "#di-francia-bronze-laser-cleaning-2022",
      "headline": "Di Francia, E. et al. 'Laser-cleaning effects induced on different types of bronze archaeological corrosion products structures.' Applied Surface Science, vol. 577, 2022, 151883.",
      "sameAs": "https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0169433221019437"
    },
    {
      "@type": "ScholarlyArticle",
      "@id": "#edgar-centre-block-laser-2019",
      "headline": "Edgar, J. 'A Design-Assist Approach to Laser Cleaning of Stonework at the Centre Block Rehabilitation Project.' 15th Canadian Masonry Symposium, 2019.",
      "sameAs": "https://www.canadamasonrydesigncentre.com/wp-content/uploads/15th_symposium/062-Edgar.pdf"
    },
    {
      "@type": "ScholarlyArticle",
      "@id": "#getty-stone-conservation-1996",
      "headline": "Price, C.A. Stone Conservation: An Overview of Current Research. Santa Monica: Getty Conservation Institute, 1996.",
      "sameAs": "https://www.getty.edu/conservation/publications_resources/pdf_publications/pdf/stoneconservation_1st.pdf"
    },
    {
      "@type": "ScholarlyArticle",
      "@id": "#marakis-third-harmonic-yellowing-2003",
      "headline": "Marakis, G., Pouli, P., Zafiropulos, V., Maravelaki-Kalaitzaki, P. 'Comparative study on the application of the 1st and the 3rd harmonic of a Q-switched Nd:YAG laser system to clean black encrustation on marble.' Journal of Cultural Heritage, vol. 4, 2003, pp. 83-91.",
      "sameAs": "https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1296207402012086"
    },
    {
      "@type": "ScholarlyArticle",
      "@id": "#mdpi-er-yag-cemented-dust-2020",
      "headline": "Spizzichino, V. et al. 'Investigating the Potential of the Er:YAG Laser for the Removal of Cemented Dust from Limestone and Painted Plaster.' Coatings, vol. 10, no. 11, 2020, 1099.",
      "sameAs": "https://www.mdpi.com/2079-6412/10/11/1099"
    },
    {
      "@type": "ScholarlyArticle",
      "@id": "#met-museum-cloisters-laser-2014",
      "headline": "Baude, E. 'Laser Cleaning for Stone Conservation at The Cloisters.' The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2014.",
      "sameAs": "https://www.metmuseum.org/perspectives/laser-cleaning-for-stone-conservation"
    },
    {
      "@type": "ScholarlyArticle",
      "@id": "#pmc-nocardia-biofilm-laser-2025",
      "headline": "Al-Zahrani, F.A. et al. 'Q-Switched Nd:YAG Laser Treatment of Nocardia sp. Black Biofilm: Complete Biodeterioration Reversal in Limestone Heritage Conservation.' PMC, 2025, article 12386916.",
      "sameAs": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12386916"
    },
    {
      "@type": "ScholarlyArticle",
      "@id": "#pouli-two-wavelength-laser-2016",
      "headline": "Pouli, P. et al. 'The two-wavelength laser cleaning methodology: theoretical background and examples from its application on CH objects and monuments with emphasis to the Athens Acropolis sculptures.' npj Heritage Science, vol. 4, 2016, article 9.",
      "sameAs": "https://www.nature.com/articles/s40494-016-0077-2"
    },
    {
      "@type": "ScholarlyArticle",
      "@id": "#pozo-antonio-granite-graffiti-2018",
      "headline": "Pozo-Antonio, J.S. et al. 'Laser-Assisted Removal of Graffiti from Granite: Advantages of the Simultaneous Use of Two Wavelengths.' Coatings, vol. 8, no. 4, 2018, 124.",
      "sameAs": "https://www.mdpi.com/2079-6412/8/4/124"
    },
    {
      "@type": "ScholarlyArticle",
      "@id": "#science4heritage-cost-g7",
      "headline": "COST Action G7: Artworks Conservation by Laser. 'Principles of Laser Cleaning in Conservation.' Science for Heritage, European Cooperation in Science and Technology, 2003.",
      "sameAs": "http://www.science4heritage.org/COSTG7/booklet/chapters/prin_cle.htm"
    },
    {
      "@type": "ScholarlyArticle",
      "@id": "#siano-laser-cleaning-review-2012",
      "headline": "Siano, S. et al. 'Laser cleaning in conservation of stone, metal, and painted artifacts: state of the art and new insights on the use of the Nd:YAG lasers.' Applied Physics A, vol. 106, 2012, pp. 419-446.",
      "sameAs": "https://www.academia.edu/18423099"
    },
    {
      "@type": "ScholarlyArticle",
      "@id": "#springer-fs-granite-biofilm-2025",
      "headline": "Ramil, A. et al. 'Femtosecond laser ablation for the conservation of Galician granites.' Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment, 2025.",
      "sameAs": "https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10064-025-04400-1"
    },
    {
      "@type": "ScholarlyArticle",
      "@id": "#sutter-er-yag-nd-yag-pisa-2023",
      "headline": "Sutter, A., Di Marco, C., Spada, M., Trinchetti, A., Spampinato, M., Manariti, A., Andreotti, A., Colombini, M.P. 'Combined use of Er:YAG and Nd:YAG lasers for cleaning the stone surfaces of the Monumental Cemetery of Pisa.' In Lasers in the Conservation of Artworks XIII. CRC Press, 2023.",
      "sameAs": "https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/oa-edit/10.1201/9781003386872-22"
    },
    {
      "@type": "ScholarlyArticle",
      "@id": "#verges-belmin-laser-yellowing-2003",
      "headline": "Vergès-Belmin, V., Dignard, C. 'Laser yellowing: myth or reality?' Journal of Cultural Heritage, vol. 4, 2003, pp. 238s-244s.",
      "sameAs": "https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1296207400001941"
    },
    {
      "@type": "ScholarlyArticle",
      "@id": "#wang-beijing-marble-black-crust-2022",
      "headline": "Wang, X. et al. 'Study on the mechanism of the black crust formation on the ancient marble sculptures and the effect of pollution in Beijing area.' Heliyon, vol. 8, no. 9, 2022, e10417.",
      "sameAs": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9459681"
    },
    {
      "@type": "ScholarlyArticle",
      "@id": "#zhang-yongling-salts-2025",
      "headline": "Zhang, Y. et al. 'Types and sources of salts causing exfoliation and efflorescence in stone relics at Yongling Mausoleum.' npj Heritage Science, 2025.",
      "sameAs": "https://www.nature.com/articles/s40494-025-01654-6"
    }
  ]
}